Panarchistic Architecture :: Chapter #7 [7.1]

Citation: Sterry, M. L., (2018) Panarchistic Architecture: Building Wildland-Urban Interface Resilience to Wildfire through Design Thinking, Practice and Building Codes Modelled on Ecological Systems Theory. PhD Thesis, Advanced Virtual and Technological Architecture Research [AVATAR] group, University of Greenwich, London.

Panta Rhei Meets Permutation: Calculation, Codes, and Codification for External States of Flux and Fire

“the chromosome is both “law-code and executive power – or, to use another simile, it is architect’s plan and builder’s craft – in one.” Eigen, 2004.

7.1 Overview

Having discussed the underlying paradigmatic principles of a tri-part pangenical approach to architecture and urban design in the wildland urban interface of the western U.S., this chapter explores the codification potentialities, both present and possible future, through discussion, scenarios, and speculations.

7.1.1 Macrocosms in Microcosms: Towards Trichotomous Perspectives

In contrast to Jeremy Bentham’s ‘Pannomion’, which a “single code” was intended to be “all-comprehensive” in its application (Huge, 2004, p.5), thus advocating a ‘one- size fits all’ environmental and social scenarios codification approach, the findings of this study assert that not one, but three code variants are appropriate to the environmental, therein fire behaviours as can became manifest within the wildland urban interface. Thus, this tri-part pangenical paradigm and the architectural and urban design practice and codes born therefrom are, in effect, the inverse of Bentham’s. But, born of an era endowed with ever-expanding and evolving means of evaluating real, short, and increasingly long-term environmental possibilities, the Panarchitectural genera and the codes that establish the parameters within which its various ‘species’ develop, accommodates for such expanse of information as was far beyond Bentham’s reach.

While, currently, the NFDRS’s several fire-monitoring indices have limited predictive capacity, both terrestrial and space environmental monitoring systems are evolving apace. Research needs, such as the creation of wireless integrated sensor networks (Kremens et al, 2010), and “the development of a greater number of remotely sensed metrics” to be used in the assessment of fuel-state change (Smith et al, 2014, p. 322) are increasingly met. For example, organisations including ESA, NASA, USGS, and Planet Labs, are among a burgeoning number that provide open access satellite imagery. Currently, several such satellites and aerial sensors are utilised for monitoring wildfire-related activity worldwide (Herawati et al, 2015). Their capabilities include detecting active wildfires, mapping burn-scars, and assessing biomass state [NOAA’s Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR); Landsat’s multispectral, thermal, and panchromatic banded fleet [Fig. 78], and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) [Fig. 79]; Bispectral and Infrared Remote Detection (BIRD)]; and fuel availability and flammability [RapidEye multispectral systems; Airborne Visible Infra-Red Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS); Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER); MODIS/ASTER Airborne Simulator (MASTER); and, the first to gather public access high resolution imagery, IKONOS]. Researchers, such as Pierre Markuse, of whom works are featured throughout this thesis, digitally process such imagery to reveal data, which other researchers then utilise in their analysis of the wildfires and their aftermaths in near-to-real-time. Indeed, in response to several recent wildfire complexes, Planet Labs’ (planet.com) disaster response team mobilised one of their high-resolution [scale 5m>] RapidEye fleet, thereon immediately released the imagery under an open CC-BY-SA license.

Bringing a sense of scale to the sum of the satellite imagery now available, CA start- up Descartes Labs (descarteslabs.com) provide access to 5 million gigabytes [and growing] of data. Simultaneously, advances in the analysis of landscape-scale data, including artificial intelligence systems that rapidly process satellite and other imagery, and in wildfire modelling and simulation, such as the National Institute of Science and Technology’s Wildland-Urban Interface Fire Dynamics Simulation, take ‘panoptical’ potentialities to a new level, as do technological advancements more generally. For example, increasingly advanced, yet accessible home-weather stations enable citizens to monitor temperature, humidity, heat index, wind speed and gust, and more (Celestron, 2018). Though not as sophisticated as government agency run remote automatic weather stations, the data that can be extrapolated therefrom is valuable, for it, together with ocular and other in-situ observations can be aggregated and analysed by diverse members of the research, policy, and business community. Further ways in which citizen gathered information can inform real-time wildfire response and research includes analysis of social media activity, as exemplified by Haze Gazer, which is an app that analyses Twitter-user activity to help track the spread of wildfire smoke, thus inform which communities are at risk of respiratory and other health problems (Hazegazer.org, 2017). Hence, regardless of cuts to U.S. government-funded wildfire research and some affiliated budgets (Philipps, 2017), combinatory factors are enabling such “real-time decision support” and “cross boundary communication” as was recommended by the scientific advisors to the Obama administration (Holdren et al, 2015).

As discussed earlier, fire-adaptation in plant genera is dependent on functional traits that enable them to track an array of cyclical, and other environmental changes, including wildfire’s presence, passing, intensities, and severities. The above referenced sensing, actuating, analysis and communications technologies are representative of pre-existing monitoring modes that could be integrated into architectures and urban design of a trichotomous Panarchistic kind. However, vulnerable to hacking and other acts of privacy infringement, by means of mitigating the possibility of their unintentionally contributing to the creation of a Benthamian citizen surveillance device, countermeasures, and upgrades thereof, would be required ad infinitum. But, ours [humans] are not the only means of environmental monitoring.

7.1.2 Panoptical Permutations: From Computing to Permuting

“Over centuries, a single fungus can cover many square miles and network an entire forest. The fungal connections transmit signals from one tree to the next, helping trees exchange news about insects, drought, and other dangers”. Wohllenben, 2015.

Whereas humans compute, plants permute. Put simply, as you read this text your sensory organs are sending a stream of electronic signals via your nervous system to the epicentre thereof, which then utilizes some of its processing power to analyse said data. Although endowed with traits that enable them to ‘see’, ‘smell’, ‘feel’, and ‘hear’ their environment (Chamovitz, 2012), absent of a brain, plants, and their offspring, seeds, process sensory information in decentralised fashion [Fig. 80] (Fry, 2016; Kesseler and Stuppy, 2006). Thus, theirs is a very different kind of ‘intelligence’.

While ‘smart’ has become a ubiquitous term in the future cities debate, definitions thereof are highly ambiguous. However, ambiguity doesn’t wash in the WUI, and more specifically, whereupon a wildfire of such intensity as could incinerate a building and its abiotic and biotic contents in a matter of minutes is fast approaching. The bandwidth for cognitive dissonance zero, all such data to be utilised in the development of a Panarchistic architectural and urban design paradigm need be as neutral in its interpretation as that of the sensory organs of fire-adapted plant species. Impossible? Not necessarily.

Evolution a process not an event, the migration from centralised information processing, and the inherent interpretive bias therein, will be not momentary. But, as wide-ranging developments both within, and beyond architecture and urban design evidence, that journey is already underway:

Environmental Sensing, Actuating, and Analysis

An idea inherent in several ancient belief systems, including Hinduism [137], and anticipated in science fiction works including James Cameron’s 2009 epic Avatar [138], the notion of flora as axis mundi is not new. However, fiction is turning to fact, as plants become utilised as environmental sensors by means of monitoring temperature, humidity, and more [Fig. 81]. Pivotal projects towards building a Living Internet of Things [LIOT] include PLants Employed As SEnsor Devices [PLEASED] (European Commission, 2015), which researched plant sensory response to stimuli, including the presence of flames (Manzella et al, 2013), with the aim of advancing understanding of the electronic signals emitted in response thereto. More recently, ‘wearables’ have migrated from humans to plants, as flexible graphene-oxide sensors that affix to Poaceae family members are used to monitor biomass state-changes, including water vapour release (Krapfl, 2018). While their findings are yet to be published, developers of the PlanIT Urban Operating SystemTM, it being the most technically-advanced IOT infrastructure developed to date, Living PlanIT (www.living-planit.com) have made significant advances in bio-sensing and analysis (Steve Lewis, Living PlanIT Founder, personal communication, 2018). Put succinctly, experimental research in plant sensing in combination with their pre-existing capabilities in data acquisition and processing at the city-to-regional-scale make the leap to a real-world biological axis mundi a short one. More rudimentary devices include commercially available sensors that monitor soil hydrology by means of indicating plant hydration (Gebhart, 2014), which in fire ecology translates to fuel-state. Thus, though presently the market for such goods is targeted to they so absent of understanding of biology as to require an app to tell them when to water their pot plants, whereupon use thereof was transferred to environmental monitoring, data extrapolated therefrom could contribute to saving more than Boston ferns and Aspidistras. Additionally, recent advances in satellite-enabled tracking of animal movements and migrations (Teare, 2018) present the potential to extend the LIOT’s remit from local to global. Common in indigenous cultures in fire-prone regions, integration of observation of faunal movements into natural hazard monitoring has heritage so ancient as to predate the written record.

Architecturally, up-to-the-minute data on wildfire spread rate, direction, level within the biomass-strata [i.e. ground, surface, or canopy], intensity, and behaviour more generally, could enable responses that help save lives and/or property. For example, whereupon structures within the WUI were networked in a fashion equivocal to a mycorrhizal network in a forest, thus gathered and exchanged environmental data in real time, insights garnered therefrom could help take the guesswork out planning escape routes, while also activating structural and other wildfire defences, such as automated closure of windows, vents, and other openings through which embers could enter, and thereon ignite a building.

The viability of creating a hybridized human and biological IOT system is growing, literally, by the day. Conveyed conceptually in Diana Scherer’s Rootkit (Manaugh, 2016) experimentally, the computational potentialities of non-human intelligence have so far extended to organisms including bacterium, mycorrhizal fungi, slime moulds, bioluminescent phytoplankton, algae, ants, silk moths, and arachnids, amongst others (Park, 2018; Armstrong and Ferracina, 2013; Poletto and Pasquero, 2012). Structurally, projects indicative of the capacity of buildings and their component parts to respond to environmental cues include RVTR’s Straus Project, which an interior envelope system reconfigures its form in response to atmospheric change including variations in heat, carbon dioxide, and pollutants; Future Cities Lab’s Hydramax, which utilises shape-memory alloys and building-scale robotics to react to “daily changes in weather and occupation” (Brownell and Swackhamer, 2015, p.80); DOSU Studio’s Bloom, which harnesses the “contrasting coefficients of thermal expansion” (Ibid, p. 116) within its bimetallic materiality to shape-shift in response to changing temperature gradients; Lidia Badarnah Kadri’s explorations in environmentally-responsive biomimetic building envelopes (2012); and Menges, Krieg, and Reichert’s HygroSkin, which a timber pavilion inspired by the cones of a member of the Pinus family, features apertures that open and close as humidity levels rise and fall. Their environmental-responses triggered by material state-changes, Bloom and HygroSkin embody the essence of architectural permuting not computing, in that their intelligence is structurally distributed not centralised.

Data Storage

Descartes Labs’ 5m gigabytes of satellite imagery is but a drop in the global digital data storage ocean. Estimated to reach 44 trillion gigabytes by 2020 (Extance, 2016), should the present growth rate sustain, by 2040 demand could exceed supply of microchip-grade silicon 10-100 times over (Ibid). But, even whereupon supply met demand, the limited life-span of hard disks, and no less than in the event of fires, floods, and other natural hazards, has led leaders within the data storage community to conclude, in words of Microsoft Research, “now is the time for computer architects to consider incorporating biomolecules as an integral part of computer design” (2015, online).

DNA data storage so compact that the entire human genome fits into a cell “invisible to the naked eye” (Extance, 2016), theoretically, 1 billion gigabytes of data could be stored in 1mm3 (Microsoft Research, 2015). Bringing a sense of scale thereto, computational neuroscientist David Markowitz estimates that “the world’s storage needs could be met by about a kilogram of DNA” whereupon data was stored as compactly as in the genes of Escherichia coli bacterium [E.coli] (Extance, 2016). Digital data was first encoded in DNA in 1988, when bioart pioneer Joe Davis, in collaboration with molecular biologist Dana Boyd created an 18-base pair message titled Microvenus, which ‘scripted’ in E.coli, contained a 35 bits image of a Germanic rune representative of life and “the female earth” (Agapakis, 2012). Since then, Microsoft Research have successfully stored items including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights [and in over 100 languages], over 100 Project Guttenberg books, including some of those that are referenced in this thesis, and a seed databank in DNA, while also demonstrating that file recovery can be achieved with “no errors, using a random access approach” (Organick et al, 2018, p.242).

In addition to space-saving, DNA data storage is orders of magnitude more energy- efficient than that of current generation data centres, and considerably more durable: currently, Microsoft Research estimate DNA data storage half-life of over 500 years (2015). However, in theory, the duration thereof could extend to howsoever long DNA remains intact, which if frozen could extend to hundreds of thousands of years, or, if living tissue could extend indefinitely, as evidenced by the genome of Ginkgo biloba, of which the overall morphology and wider functional traits has remained stable for over 200 million years. Might the storage device of [human] choice of the future be not a microchip, but a seed?

DNA data storage in its authentic not synthetic form fundamental to fire-adapted species’ modes of enduring, evading, and resisting persistence, the transition from ‘tech’ to ‘biotech’ sensors, actuators, computing, storage, and networks [Fig. 82] will be central to the development of Panarchistic architecture and urban design. As evidenced by the examples above, such is the speed of advancement in biocomputing as to warrant the speculations and fictions that follow nesting their narratives therein.

7.1.3 Pangenical Materiality: Living in a Cyclically Material World

“While most animals can choose their environments, seek shelter in a storm... or migrate with the changing seasons, plants must be able to withstand and adapt to constantly changing weather.” Chamovitz, 2013.

Although a common mantra of the biomimicry movement is that ‘materials are expensive and design is cheap’ (Evans-Pughe, 2014; Pawlyn, 2011), the contrary is true, because, as exemplified in the fire-adapted species discussed throughout this thesis [i.e. Pinus contorta and Quercus chrysolepis], the functional traits that enable coexistence with complex planetary processes, such as wildfire, evolved over epochs, therein equate to R&D endeavours many times longer and more varied than humanity could replicate. Furthermore, as illustrated by traits including pyriscence and pyrogermination, even species that have evolved means of the protecting their materiality [i.e. resistors] invest significant resources in protecting the longevity of their informatic legacy [their DNA] [Fig. 83].

As do Native American architectures, this paradigm places greater value on information [i.e. praxis] than material, hence ‘builds to [seasonally] burn’, the approach thereof aligned to that of the faunal kingdom, as exhibited in numerous examples as documented by Mike Hansell (2009). But, disposability has bad reputation in sustainability circles, and for good reason: as evident in the umpteen tons of plastic waste now circulating the planet’s oceans, “designing for destruction” (Kettles, 2008) took a temporary leave of absence from the design table.

However, the cyclically renewable material options, and production methods affiliated thereto of the present are innumerably greater than those of the past. In toto, though a sizeable swathe is published in Bionic City magazine, the sum is too great to cite, but a few compelling examples include:

Biofabricated materials, which cultivated from living organisms, including fungi and bacteria, may be grown on or off-site, but in both instances, whereupon wildfire passes would reduce to their chemical parts, thereon be absorbed by the landscape, propagate the regeneration thereof, and in turn, the supply of biomass resources as may be used in building. Examples of relevant biofabrication projects include: Bio Ex-Machina (Co-de-iT, 2016), Jessica Gregory’s BiHome (Haeckels, 2018), and numerous IaaC (2018, 2016) and several Urban Morphogenesis Lab projects.
In-situ recycling, wherein, rather than clear debris away from natural hazard sites it is instead used in the regeneration process. Production methodologies that support on-site recycling of building, and other materials include wide- ranging biotic and abiotic fabrication processes, such as design for disassembly [i.e. kits of reconfigurable parts], 3D printing, and other forms of rapid prototyping as may be enabled with or without open building technologies, such as Wikihouse (2011). In-situ recycling aligns with indigenous local sources practices, such as those of the Pomo, and is operable at multiple scales, from timber to pine needles, as evident in Tamara Orjola’s ‘Forest Wool’ (Schwab, 2016), which transforms the latter into textiles.
Fire as material process, which, drawing on ancient Eastern arts and crafts narratives that embed chemical transitions, is witnessing a revival, as exemplified by Cai Guo-Qiang’s works including ‘Valley in Heat’, which was created through curation of explosives, and Esrawe’s ‘Ethereal’ lights (2018), which embedded burning in their production process by means of harnessing the material effects thereof (Gibson, 2010). These pyro-technical interrogations are part of a wider transition towards integration of state- changes in experimental design, architecture, and art practice, as illustrated in Rachel Armstrong’s Vibrant Architecture (2013), James Eagle’s Despositional Architectures (2016, 2018), and Ensamble’s Tippet Rise Art Center (2018).
Organism as architecture, wherein curation of plant growth not merely harnesses the life’s materiality, but its structural properties, of which examples include Giuliano Mauri’s Cattedrale Vegetale (2018), and Full Grown’s chairs, tables, and interior fixtures and décor (2018).

Ashes to Architectural Ashes

Nourishing not polluting landscapes, Panarchitectural genera’s materiality will be devoid of chemicals that upon burning pose harm to the environment, including, but not limited to petrochemical-based plastics, and all such classes of fire-retardant which have been linked to both human and other faunal health issues. As relates to the latter, researchers at NIST have developed bio-based retardants found to reduce flammability of common furniture components to such extent that heat release dropped by 48-77% (Bello, 2014). WUI homeowners will be encouraged to ensure household contents, including furniture and décor, are fabricated of biological materials which, like those cited above, be they natural or synthetic in origin, upon burning, would help not hinder ecological recovery from wildfire. Part of the wider architectural movement towards living and non-living, but life-like materials (Armstrong, 2013; Badarnah Kadri 2012; Gruber, 2011), these and related fabrication developments are posited as extending Max Moritz’s concept of “passive survivability” (2017) to incorporate non-human communities which, resident in and adjacent to the WUI, are harmed whereupon burning of non-biological materials releases toxic pollutants into the food chain.

Cradle to Landscape Cradle

Codification of a trichotomous architectural codex, which accommodates for physically, therein phenomenologically distinct peri-urban landscapes, necessitates a mind-set broadly aligned to that of Landscape urbanism as defined by, amongst others, Peter Connolly (2012), James Corner (1997), Mohsen Mostafavi (1993), and Chris Reed and Marie Lister (2014), and their antecedents, notably Ian McHarg (1992). Not “practices of the wild” (in reference to Corner citing Snyder, 1990), but ‘codes from the wild’, that, sensu Corner, seek to “extend new relationships and sets of possibilities” (2006), fundamental thereto is a symbiogenetical approach (sensu Chu, 2004), which, not merely metaphorically, but practically, delegates a degree of decision-making to buildings, more specifically, via the programmatic potentialities which, be it biochemically or otherwise, are inherent in their materiality. The above- cited materials exhibit properties that illustrate distribution of architectural decisions to non-human entities, which whether biotic, abiotic, or a fusion thereof [Fig. 84], converse with their environment is not a pipe dream, but an unfolding reality.

7.1.4 Smoke Signals: Pyrophilic Sensing, Signalling and Symbiogenesis

“It is no exaggeration that our entire civilisation is built on seeds” Kesseler & Stuppy, 2014.

Reverting to the Panarchistic design, thinking, and policy brief, ways in which the above referenced sensing, actuating, analysis, data storage, networking, and material developments may enable architecture as cyclic biochemical process of material & information exchange, which, built to burn, recurrently rises from its ashes, but, upon doing so, evolves with each phoenix-like incarnation, include:

Resprouting

Transitioning towards biological data storage of architectural ‘DNA’, interim technologies, such as those cited above, could store all such data as is required to ‘clone’ architectural and urban assemblages [i.e. specifications and blueprints]. Whereas replication of hazard-vulnerable architectures has grave social and environmental consequences, whereupon, like endurer species [i.e. Populus tremuloides], material, structural, morphological and other traits enable persistence in fire-prone regions, the inverse applies.

Pyriscence

Environmental sensing, actuating, analysis, and networking technologies, biological and otherwise, now facilitating real-time local, regional, and global monitoring of both cyclic and sporadic planetary processes, and the body of architectural experiments in environmentally-adaptive material morphologies fast growing, the foundations for wildfire as regenerative urban catalyst are laid. Ways in which the field may advance include interrogation of the potentialities for heat-triggered structural transitions, such as those that occur when the resins in the cones of fire- adapted Pinus species [i.e. Pinus contorta] melt. Ways in which mimicry of said process may activate architectural ‘reproduction’ include the release of fabrication agents [i.e. self-organising biological materials]; of both locally and remotely stored data as may be used for purposes including construction, production of furniture and other household goods, and insurance claims; of emergency supplies [i.e. food, water, and medicine]; and of notifications to family, friends, peers, and colleagues of the loss of property, thus need of assistance [i.e. accommodation, emotional support, etc.] Upon reproduction of homes and their contents, as/where applicable, this process allows for evolution [i.e. specification upgrades].

Pyrogermination

As with pyriscence, the process of pyrogermination could be enabled through transference of existing and emerging sensing, actuating, analysis, and networking technologies, biological and otherwise. However, whereas, pyriscence is a heat- activated hybrid biochemical-mechanical process [i.e. changes in the former trigger response in the latter], pyrogermination relies wholly on receipt of chemical signatures, thus data, and in some instances, technologies as facilitate the acquisition and analysis thereof, would be different to that of pyriscence. As in fire-adapted species [i.e. Pinus attenuata], pyriscence and pyrogermination would be symbiotic, wherein their means of enabling architectural and urban reproduction would be not mutually exclusive.

Abscission

Architectural abscission, wherein external features that could carry fire from floor to roof [i.e. biotic assemblages, such as flora-clad trellises], which shed prior to the arrival of wildfire, could be facilitated through myriad mechanical processes. For example, as with pyriscence, material state-change, such as they exhibited by Menges et al’s HydroSkin, could release building components. Alternatively, sensor-activated automation could achieve the same ends. But, whatsoever methods were applied, architecturally the approach would be akin to buildings that shed their flammable skins, the timing and the extent thereof relative to the fire-regime and its behaviours. As in fire-adapted species [i.e. Pinus ponderosa], abscission timing and extent would be correlated to fire frequencies and intensities, thus genera specific.

Retardance

Chemically, structurally, and morphologically, both biofabricated and biomimetic materials may be designed and/or cultivated to retard fire. In some instances [i.e. mycelium and cork] biological materials have innate fire-retardance. Either way, as evidenced in several of the experiments cited earlier, like their wild counterparts, these materials exhibit the properties of self-organisation, including cyclical and/or event-activated renewal and repair. As relates to biomimetic materials, interest in fire- retardance growing, it is, most likely, but a matter of time before material scientists innovate roof tiles and other exterior building products which mimic the fire-retardant morphology of resistor species [i.e. Pinus coulteri].

Praetera

All three Panarchistic variants need integrate Shelter in Place [i.e. belowground bunkers], which common in hazard zones including tornado belts, can provide safe harbour for residents that find themselves caught in a firestorm. Ecologically, burrowing by means of protection from wildfire is common in numerous species including insects, small mammals, and reptiles.

7.1.5 Summary: Pyropangenical Codes and Codification

“Having helped us to become the most successful species on Earth, seeds may also offer our best hope for saving us from ourselves”. Fry, 2016.

Unlike the avatar cities of Mesopotamian times, they of present [both ‘smart’ and simulated] are digital. However, as the 21st century advances, recent and anticipated near-future developments in biological data sensing, actuating, analysis, networking, and storage, together with resource shortages of materials from which microchips, amongst other electronic technologies are made, suggest a migration from digital back to physical. However, whereas codification of Bronze Age codes came in the form of cuneiform-inscribed stone tablets, that of the unfolding urban revolution will be biological, not geological: written in DNA.

Simultaneously, developments in biological information acquisition and processing, and advancements in satellite and aerial sensing and imaging are delivering a suite of real and near-to-real time insights into wildfire behaviour, and Earth systems more generally. Hence, wildfire monitoring now stretches from the nano to the planetary- scale, and from moment-to-moment.

Materially, biofabrication, in all its many forms, is enabling architectural to step beyond the spatiotemporal parameters of past, and into new conceptual territory. No longer is it fantasy to imagine that a building can behave in ways as may be described as ‘living’.

But, many are the dots yet to be joined; starting with building codes, for presently none of the above-cited material and information developments are accommodated for in wildland urban interface and fire codes. Thus, informatically and materially, the standards ascribed to building in the WUI today are akin to they of when Hammurabi was ruler of Babylon.

In the sections as follow, they being parts III – IV of the Case Studies, this matter will be addressed, as I converge the transdisciplinary findings from this study into scenarios and flash fictions that explore the potentialities for pyro-evolutionary architectures of replication, reproduction, and resistance.

>Continue to Chapter 7 [part II] here.

Footnotes

[137] In reference to the Tree of Life.

[138] In reference to the Tree of Souls.